Urban farming as urban green infrastructure: advancing climate resilience, ecosystem services, and sustainable city transitions in Makassar, Indonesia

Abstract

Introduction Rapid urbanization in secondary cities across the Global South has increased pressure on green infrastructure, climate resilience, and urban liveability. In Makassar, Indonesia, the decline of green open spaces and the expansion of built-up areas threaten the ecological stability and social well-being. This study reframes urban farming as multifunctional urban green infrastructure that can support sustainable city transitions by integrating ecological regulation, food production, and socio-cultural values within the urban landscape. Methods This study employed a mixed-methods design combining biophysical field measurements and Scenic Beauty Estimation (SBE) surveys. Biophysical measurements were used to quantify key ecological services, including carbon sequestration, oxygen production, and biomass accumulation. SBE surveys were conducted to assess the socio-cultural valuation of urban farming landscapes in comparison with hardscape-dominated urban areas. Results The findings show that urban farming contributes approximately 87.6 ha, representing nearly one-third of Makassar’s existing green open space. These areas sequester approximately 117,000 tons of CO 2 and produce approximately 83,400 tons of oxygen annually. Under baseline assumptions, the monetized value of these ecosystem services was estimated at approximately USD 10.7 million per year. In addition to these ecological benefits, urban farming landscapes received significantly higher scenic value ratings than hardscape-dominated areas, indicating strong social acceptance and legitimacy across demographic groups. Discussion The results demonstrate that urban farming should be institutionalized as strategic green infrastructure within spatial planning, climate adaptation frameworks, and green financing mechanisms. By combining ecological services, food production, and cultural landscape values, urban farming offers a scalable pathway for SDG-aligned sustainable urban transformation. This is particularly important for rapidly urbanizing secondary cities, where formal green infrastructure remains limited and urban resilience challenges are becoming increasingly urgent.