Unveiling the metabolic profile and anti-inflammatory potential of apple of Sodom (Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T.) by UPLC–MS/MS chemometric analysis

Abstract

Calotropis procera, commonly referred to as the apple of Sodom, is a perennial shrub, notable for its ecological role and extensive use in traditional medicine. This study aims to explore the phytochemical variability among different organs' extracts of C. procera, specifically stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds, using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) and multivariate statistical techniques. A comprehensive analysis identified 112 distinct phytoconstituents, with unique profiles observed across the various organs' extracts. The study further assessed the anti-inflammatory potential of these extracts by examining their effects on the gene expression of key pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and INF-γ) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated human white blood cells. Results indicate that the extracts from flowers and fruits significantly downregulated IL-1β expression to levels lower than those exhibited by piroxicam, indicating their proficient inflammation inhibitory efficacy. Orthogonal Projection to Latent Structures (OPLS) coefficient plots unraveled that methyldimethoxycinnamate, vinyloxybutanol, butanediol dibenzoate, pyroterebic acid and ursenone are the key biomarkers accountable for this efficacy. This research underscores C. procera's pharmacological significance, providing a scientific foundation for its traditional medicinal applications. The findings highlight the necessity for further investigations into the mechanistic pathways of its bioactive compounds and their implications for developing novel anti-inflammatory therapies.