review · Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering
Large-scale hydrogen storage on the surface faces constraints in capacity and cost, making subsurface geological storage an attractive option. Storing hydrogen underground provides the scale, safety, and economic viability needed to support renewable energy integration and fuel cell technologies. Depleted oil fields, depleted gas fields, and salt caverns serve as prime options because they minimise chemical interactions and reduce gas loss. Globally, four-fifths of underground storage projects use depleted natural gas and oil reservoirs to leverage existing surface and subsurface infrastructure. Among the geological alternatives, salt caverns provide distinct advantages, including self-healing characteristics, low permeability in surrounding rock, high storage volumes, fast injection and withdrawal cycles, and low risks of contamination. Hydrogen generation economics also remain critical, with production from coal currently costing between 1.2 and 2 USD per kilogram, whereas cleaner renewable water electrolysis costs 3 to 13 USD per kilogram.
Transitioning to clean energy requires massive, secure storage systems to balance supply and demand. Geological storage allows vast quantities of hydrogen to be held underground safely and economically, bridging the gap between renewable generation and fuel cell use while addressing the high costs and physical limitations of surface tanks.
Energy developers, grid operators, and infrastructure companies can target depleted gas reservoirs to exploit established infrastructure and lower initial capital outlay. Salt caverns present operational value for commercial users requiring rapid injection and withdrawal. Because the review synthesises field applications alongside laboratory modelling, underlying storage concepts are already being tested in real-world settings, though cost reductions in clean hydrogen production remain necessary for wider adoption.
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Surface hydrogen storage facilities are limited and costly, making subsurface hydrogen storage in geological formations a more viable alternative due to its substantial capacity, safety, and economic feasibility. This method is essential for large-scale hydrogen storage to support renewable energy integration, fuel cell technologies, and other applications aimed at mitigating global climate change. This review examines underground hydrogen storage (UHS) in geological formations, focusing on recent experiments, modeling and simulations, and field applications. Geological formations such as depleted oil reservoirs, salt caverns, and depleted natural gas reservoirs are identified as favorable candidates due to minimal interactions with hydrogen, leading to low hydrogen loss. Globally, 80% of UHS projects utilize depleted natural gas and oil reservoirs, with over 50% focused on depleted natural gas and oil condensate reservoirs due to cost-effective existing infrastructure. Among storage options, salt caverns are the most advantageous, offering self-healing properties, low caprock permeability, large storage capacity, rapid injection and withdrawal rates, and low contamination risk. Additionally, hydrogen produced from coal is the cheapest option, costing 1.2–2 USD/kg, whereas hydrogen from renewable sources, such as water, is the most expensive at 3–13 USD/kg. Despite its higher cost, green hydrogen from water, characterized by low carbon emissions, requires further research to reduce production costs. This review highlights critical research gaps, challenges, and policy recommendations to advance UHS technologies, ensuring their role in combating climate change.
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DOI: 10.1016/j.jrmge.2025.02.014
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