The impact of heavy metal pollution: bioaccumulation, oxidative stress, and histopathological alterations in fish across diverse habitats

Abstract

Abstract Heavy metal contamination of aquatic environments threatens fish health and ecosystems. This review examines the bioaccumulation patterns, toxicity mechanisms, effects of oxidative stress, and histopathological changes induced by heavy metals in various fish species across different habitats. Important heavy metals, including mercury, cadmium, lead, arsenic, chromium, copper, and iron, are discussed. These metals can bioaccumulate in fish tissues via waterborne and dietary exposure, and bioaccumulation depends on several factors such as metal type, fish species, and exposure conditions. The generation of reactive oxygen species is one of the main reasons why heavy metals exert their toxic effects; depletion of antioxidants and damage to cellular components lead to oxidative stress. Oxidative stress is induced by alterations in antioxidant enzymes and increases in lipid peroxidation levels. Histopathological changes were recorded in target organs, such as the gills, liver, and kidneys. We emphasize the existing knowledge gap, which requires further research to provide full insights into fish heavy metal toxicity, with potential implications for human consumers. Understanding the toxicity mechanisms of heavy metals in fish is the key to developing biomarkers and mitigation strategies to protect aquatic ecosystems.