Students' formative assessment perceptions: A multilevel analysis of gender and classroom effects in primary schools in Tanzania

Abstract

This study examined whether perceptions of formative assessment (FA) in Tanzanian primary schools arise from individual pupils’ genders or the shared classroom environment. Using a cross-sectional survey of 1,558 students nested within 68 classrooms, the research applied multilevel modeling with Bayesian estimation. The results established scalar invariance, which validated latent mean comparisons across gender groups. The findings showed no statistically significant gender differences at the individual level. Approximately 28% of the total variance in FA perceptions was observed at the classroom level. The classrooms with stronger FA practices exhibited no significant gender gaps. Conversely, a substantial subject-specific effect was observed for Swahili, with its classrooms exhibiting a lower level of FA quality than other subjects. The findings suggest that policy should focus on classroom-level interventions to promote educational equity.