article · Parasites & Vectors
Malaria vector populations in Burkina Faso show distinct spatial and temporal patterns in insecticide resistance. Testing of Anopheles gambiae s.l. and Anopheles coluzzii across field sites and a laboratory colony revealed complete susceptibility to pirimiphos-methyl and variable susceptibility to bendiocarb. In contrast, mosquitoes exhibited severe resistance to DDT and the pyrethroids deltamethrin and permethrin. Pre-exposure to piperonyl butoxide significantly restored deltamethrin susceptibility, pointing to metabolic resistance pathways. Although pyrethroid resistance remained consistently high across a five-year field monitoring period and across laboratory generations, the frequency of the target-site kdr-L995F resistance mutation dropped substantially over time in both settings. This divergence between mutation prevalence and phenotypic resistance indicates that other resistance mechanisms are operating alongside target-site mutations, demonstrating that effective resistance management programmes require combined molecular and phenotypic monitoring.
Chemical insecticides remain a cornerstone of malaria vector control, but evolving mosquito resistance threatens their effectiveness. Demonstrating that target-site mutations alone do not explain persistent resistance highlights why surveillance programmes cannot rely solely on simple genetic tests. These insights help public health organisations select viable insecticides, such as pirimiphos-methyl or synergist nets, to protect communities from malaria transmission.
The findings can guide public health agencies, vector control programmes, and insecticide or bed-net manufacturers in selecting active ingredients and formulation strategies, such as incorporating piperonyl butoxide to counter metabolic resistance. As this study is observational field and laboratory surveillance, it does not offer a direct commercial product, but rather delivers applied surveillance evidence immediately relevant to operational deployment decisions in malaria control.
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Insecticide resistance is widespread among malaria vectors in Burkina Faso. Although resistance in Anopheles coluzzii has been extensively documented, studies integrating spatial variation and long-term temporal trends in both field and laboratory populations remain limited in Burkina Faso. Understanding these dynamics is essential for evidence-based vector control strategies. Spatial variation in insecticide resistance was assessed using WHO susceptibility bioassays on Anopheles gambiae s.l. collected from four localities, combined with molecular species identification and genotyping of the kdr-L995F mutation in An. coluzzii . Temporal dynamics were investigated over five consecutive years in a sentinel site (Vallée du Kou) and over 2 years in a laboratory colony using the same methods. A total of 6,700 mosquitoes were tested in susceptibility bioassays and 1,264 An. coluzzii specimens were genotyped. Populations of An. gambiae s.l. and An. coluzzii were fully susceptible to pirimiphos-methyl (100% mortality), while responses to bendiocarb varied across localities (94.9–100%), years (96.1–100%), and laboratory generations (86.3–100%). In contrast, high levels of resistance were observed to pyrethroids and DDT, with mortality ranging from 0 to 18.4% for deltamethrin, 1–5.9% for permethrin, and 1–41.6% for DDT. Pre-exposure to PBO partially restored susceptibility to deltamethrin, increasing mortality by 27.5–68 percentage points across all datasets. Significant spatial and temporal variations in kdr-L995F frequency were detected in both field and laboratory populations of An. coluzzii . Allele frequencies ranged from 0.27 in Ziniaré to 0.50 in Banfora. In Vallée du Kou, the frequency declined from 0.51 in 2021 to 0.31 in 2025, while in the laboratory colony it decreased from 0.74 (generation F5) to 0.21 (generation F27). Despite persistent pyrethroid resistance, the marked decline in kdr-L995F frequency in both field and laboratory populations of An. coluzzii suggests the involvement of additional resistance mechanisms. These findings underscore the need for integrated phenotypic and molecular surveillance to support insecticide resistance management.
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DOI: 10.1186/s13071-026-07608-6
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