Overview of Alkylphenols as Emerging Pollutants on Fish: A Critical Review of Classical and Novel Endpoints

Abstract

Numerous studies have examined the effects of phenolic compounds on the fish endocrine system, commonly using plasma vitellogenin (VTG) expression and zona radiata proteins as biomarkers of estrogenic exposure. However, comparatively little attention has been given to the effect of endocrine-disrupting chemicals on additional endocrine pathways in fish. This review summarizes key research on the role of alkylphenols across different fish species and offers explanations to address existing discrepancies. Beyond the conventional understanding of alkylphenols as endocrine disruptors, novel aspects are also discussed. Overall, this review aims to integrate current knowledge on the effects of alkylphenols on fish and to highlight areas where further investigation is needed to complete our understanding of these compounds.