Modeling and optimization of a grid-connected PV–wind–fuel cell hybrid system with hydrogen storage

Abstract

This paper presents a comprehensive techno-economic and environmental assessment of a grid-connected hybrid renewable energy system (HRES) integrating photovoltaic (PV), wind turbine (WT), and fuel cell (FC) technologies for a case study in Dakhla, Morocco. A detailed modeling framework is developed, including renewable generation, electrolyzer operation, hydrogen storage, and fuel cell conversion, combined with an energy management strategy to coordinate power flows between system components and the utility grid. The system design is formulated as a constrained optimization problem aiming to minimize the total annual cost while incorporating reliability and grid stability requirements through a penalty-based approach. The optimization is performed using a particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm to evaluate three system configurations: PV–WT–FC, WT–FC, and PV–FC. The results show that the PV–WT–FC configuration provides the best overall performance, achieving a total annual cost of 186,957 USD, a levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of 0.1472 USD/kWh, and a high renewable energy fraction (REF) of 88.32%. This configuration also ensures excellent reliability (LPSP = 0%) and stable grid operation. In contrast, the WT–FC configuration achieves a lower LCOE of 0.1164 USD/kWh when considering component costs alone; however, it results in significant grid instability, leading to a high penalty cost of 700,588 USD and reduced overall feasibility. Similarly, the PV–FC configuration shows a higher total annual cost (255,425 USD) and lower renewable penetration (60%), making it less competitive. These findings highlight the importance of integrating grid stability and reliability constraints within the optimization framework. The proposed approach effectively identifies balanced system configurations that ensure cost efficiency, high renewable penetration, and stable operation, confirming the robustness and practical applicability of the PV–WT–FC system for sustainable energy deployment.