Metabolomic Profiling and Bioactivity Assessment of Moroccan Camel Urine: Antioxidant Activity and Preliminary Phage‐Based Screening

Abstract

Dromedary urinotherapy is a longstanding traditional practice in regions where camels are commonly reared, particularly for the management of metabolic disorders, cancer, and viral infections. Despite its ethnomedicinal relevance, the bioactivity of camel urine (CU) has been reported previously, though often without detailed characterization of the biological source. This study provides an exploratory, biologically contextualized evaluation of Moroccan CU using a set of well-documented samples collected under defined physiological and ecological conditions. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis revealed a diverse metabolite composition, with major constituents including benzoic acid (61.48%), lactic acid (17.79%), p-cresol (19.84%), p-cresol glucuronide (14.94%), hippuric acid (11.97%), aminomalonic acid (7.48%), and phenylacetic acid (4.53%). Antioxidant assays demonstrated marked variability among samples, with higher activity observed in camels consuming desert vegetation rich in bioactive phytochemicals, suggesting an association with differences in diet and environmental conditions. Phage inhibition testing showed a significant reduction in bacteriophage titers at 200 mg/mL in most samples, except GFS. Exploratory analysis suggested a possible association between p-cresol glucuronide abundance and phage inhibition performance. These findings provide exploratory biochemical insight into Moroccan CU and suggest that specific metabolites and dietary factors may contribute to variation in its measured bioactivities, warranting further investigation.