Measuring the Immeasurable: Designing and Validating Assessments of Spiritual Intelligence as a Core Component of SEL in Faith‐Based School Contexts in Ghana and Botswana

Abstract

ABSTRACT In an era where holistic education is gaining prominence, spiritual intelligence is emerging as a critical yet under‐assessed component of students' personal and social development. This study aimed to develop and validate the Spiritual Intelligence Assessment Tool (SIAT) for cross‐cultural application in faith‐based educational settings across Ghana and Botswana. Grounded in four theoretical dimensions, spiritual awareness, compassion, ethical decision making, and purpose and meaning, the instrument underwent rigorous psychometric evaluation. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) revealed a clear four‐factor structure explaining 75.8% of the cumulative variance, with eigenvalues ranging from 1.75 to 4.21. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) demonstrated excellent model fit ( χ ² /df = 1.91, CFI = 0.957, TLI = 0.942, RMSEA = 0.043), supporting the factorial validity of SIAT. Internal consistency was high across subscales (Cronbach's α = 0.81–0.87), with composite reliability (CR = 0.83–0.89) and average variance extracted (AVE = 0.53–0.61) indicating strong convergent validity. Discriminant validity was established, as AVE values exceeded maximum shared variance (MSV) for all factors. Measurement invariance testing confirmed configural and metric invariance across Ghana and Botswana, indicating a stable factor structure and equivalent factor loadings across contexts. While scalar and strict invariance showed marginal declines in model fit (ΔCFI = −0.016 and −0.011 respectively), partial support suggests cautious interpretation of latent mean differences. Descriptive statistics revealed higher spiritual intelligence scores among students in Botswana (M = 78.2, SD = 9.4) compared to Ghana (M = 75.3, SD = 10.1), with females consistently outperforming males. ANOVA results indicated significant differences by country ( p = 0.031), educational level ( p = 0.006), and religious affiliation ( p = 0.022), with effect sizes ranging from small to moderate. Overall, the SIAT demonstrated robust psychometric properties and cultural relevance, making it a valid tool for assessing spiritual intelligence among students in sub‐Saharan African faith‐based educational settings. It is recommended that educational policymakers and school leaders in faith‐based institutions should consider incorporating spiritual intelligence into their curricula and student development programs.