review · South African Journal of Chemical Engineering
Current lithium-ion batteries provide energy densities between 250 and 693 Wh L⁻¹, yet they remain below the energy density of petrol, driving continued exploration of improved cathode materials. Modern cathodes rely on combinations of nickel, manganese, and cobalt. Nickel increases overall energy density and vehicle driving range, manganese improves safety by preventing thermal runaway, and cobalt contributes thermal stability, although efforts continue to reduce cobalt due to high costs and ethical concerns. Common chemistries like nickel manganese cobalt oxide, lithium iron phosphate, and lithium manganese oxide balance power density, safety, and operational performance for electric vehicles and stationary energy storage. Strategies such as metal ion doping, acid-resistant coatings, isomorphous substitutions, and nanostructuring help address structural degradation and capacity loss. Emerging concepts, including solid-state, lithium-sulfur, and magnesium-ion systems, face remaining hurdles such as dendrite formation and electrolyte stability.
Electric vehicles and renewable energy storage require batteries that are safer, longer-lasting, and capable of holding more energy. Cathode design directly determines how far an electric vehicle can travel on a single charge and how safely large-scale systems operate. Refining these materials helps reduce dependence on scarce, ethically problematic minerals like cobalt without sacrificing performance or thermal stability.
The reviewed technologies apply directly to electric vehicle manufacturers and stationary grid storage developers seeking safer, higher-density cells. While standard nickel manganese cobalt and lithium iron phosphate formulations are already mature and commercially deployed, proposed refinements such as high-voltage spinels, dual-doping techniques, and solid-state electrolytes remain at an earlier applied research and development stage due to ongoing technical challenges like capacity loss and dendrite growth.
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• Battery energy density is crucial for determining EV driving range, and current Li-ion batteries, despite offering high densities (250 to 693 Wh L⁻¹), still fall short of gasoline, highlighting the need for further advancements and research. • Nickel, manganese, and cobalt play critical roles in NMC cathodes: nickel enhances energy density and EV range, manganese improves safety by preventing thermal runaway, and cobalt boosts thermal stability, though efforts are ongoing to reduce cobalt usage due to cost and ethical concerns. • NMC, LFP, and LMO are top choices for EVs, offering balanced energy density, power density, safety, and overall performance, making them ideal for both EVs and energy storage systems. • Li-Mn-O spinels provide benefits like high ionic conductivity and thermal tolerance but face challenges such as capacity fading and structural instability, which can be mitigated through metal ion doping and acid-resistant coatings. • Emerging battery technologies like solid-state, lithium-sulfur, lithium-air, and magnesium-ion batteries promise significant advancements in energy density, safety, lifespan, and performance but face challenges like dendrite formation, capacity fading, and electrolyte stability. • The future of Li-ion batteries is expected to bring significant advancements in cathode materials, including high-voltage spinels and high-capacity Li-/Mn-rich oxides, integrated with system-level improvements like solid-state electrolytes, crucial for developing next-generation batteries with higher energy densities, faster charging, and longer lifespans. Advances in cathode materials continue to drive the development of safer, more efficient, and sustainable lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries for various applications, including electric vehicles (EVs) and grid storage. This review article offers insights into key elements—lithium, nickel, manganese, cobalt, and aluminium—within modern battery technology, focusing on their roles and significance in Li-ion batteries. The review paper delves into the materials comprising a Li-ion battery cell, including the cathode, anode, current concentrators, binders, additives, electrolyte, separator, and cell casing, elucidating their roles and characteristics. Additionally, it examines various cathode materials crucial to the performance and safety of Li-ion batteries, such as spinels, lithium metal oxides, and olivines, presenting their distinct advantages and challenges for battery applications. Lithium manganese (Li-Mn-O) spinels, like LiMn 2 O 4 , offer a cost-effective and environmentally friendly option with good thermal stability despite challenges such as capacity fading, which necessitate innovative approaches like dual-doping strategies. Nickel-rich lithium metal oxides like LiNi x Mn y Co 1-x-y O 2 provide high specific energy but face/encounter issues with cobalt reliance and stability, prompting research to reduce cobalt content and increase nickel content. Olivine-based cathode materials, such as lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4), prioritize safety and stability but exhibit lower energy density, leading to exploration into isomorphous substitutions and nanostructuring to enhance performance. Safety considerations, including thermal management and rigorous testing protocols, are essential to mitigate risks of thermal runaway and short circuits. Thus, this review scrutinizes recent advancements in Li-ion battery cathode materials, delving into strategies aimed at mitigating associated drawbacks and identifying suitable electrode materials based on their electrochemical performance and capacity during operation.
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DOI: 10.1016/j.sajce.2024.09.008
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