Institutional and behavioural constraints to climate change adaptation among smallholder farmers in semi-arid Tanzania

Abstract

Climate change poses a growing threat to smallholder agriculture in semi-arid regions of sub-Saharan Africa, where rural livelihoods depend heavily on climate-sensitive rain-fed farming systems. Although numerous adaptation options have been promoted, their uptake remains uneven due to interacting institutional, socio-economic, and behavioural constraints. This study examined climate change adaptation strategies among smallholder farmers, the barriers limiting adaptation, and the support mechanisms required to strengthen adaptive capacity in Bahi District, central Tanzania. A convergent mixed-methods design was employed, integrating data from a household survey of 254 randomly selected farmers, three focus group discussions, and seventeen key informant interviews. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), while qualitative data were analysed through thematic analysis. Guided by Resilience Theory and the Theory of Planned Behaviour, the study examined how climatic pressures, institutional conditions, and farmers’ perceived capacity to act interact to shape adaptation decisions. The findings show that farmers employ multiple adaptation strategies, including irrigation, adjustment of planting dates, adoption of drought-tolerant crop varieties, improved agricultural technologies, and water harvesting. However, these responses remain uneven due to financial limitations, water scarcity, inadequate access to inputs, weak extension services, and limited institutional support. Importantly, a statistically significant proportion of farmers reported having no planned adaptation strategy. Qualitative evidence indicates that this “non-adaptation” does not reflect a lack of climate awareness but rather constrained adaptive agency resulting from limited resources, institutional gaps, and uncertainty about future climatic conditions. Adaptation responses also varied significantly across villages, reflecting differences in infrastructure availability, resource access, and institutional support. The study demonstrates that climate change adaptation among smallholder farmers is shaped not only by knowledge and willingness but also by the structural conditions that determine farmers’ ability to act. Strengthening agricultural resilience in semi-arid Tanzania therefore requires integrated interventions that expand access to finance, improve small-scale irrigation and water management infrastructure, strengthen extension and climate information services, and promote inclusive governance of adaptation resources. By integrating behavioural and resilience perspectives, this study contributes to understanding how institutional and socio-economic conditions shape constrained adaptive agency and provides policy-relevant insights for advancing equitable and climate-resilient agricultural development.