Indoor and outdoor fine particulate matter and carbon monoxide concentrations in homes of infants in Nairobi, Kenya

Abstract

Early life exposure to air pollution is associated with adverse health outcomes in children however few studies have investigated children's air pollution exposures in urban settings in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). We measured fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and carbon monoxide (CO) in homes of infants in Nairobi, Kenya and conducted exploratory analysis of exposure factors. Questionnaires captured household characteristics and self-reported air pollution exposures. Indoor and outdoor 24-hour (24 h) concentrations were measured inside and 1 m outside the house. PM2.5 was sampled using standard gravimetric procedures; CO was measured with direct-reading electrochemical sensors. Forty-eight homes were sampled at median infant age 11.5 months (range 0.8-26.2 months). During sampling, 66.7%, 18.8%, 10.4% and 10.4% of mothers, respectively, reported using liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), ethanol, electricity, and kerosene for cooking. Median indoor and outdoor 24 h PM2.5 concentrations (n = 39) were 39.9 ug/m3 (range, 12.8-519.6 ug/m3) and 23.3 ug/m3 (range, 2.6-68.2 ug/m3), respectively. Most PM2.5 concentrations (97% of indoor; 79% of outdoor) exceeded the World Health Organization (WHO) 24 h air quality guideline (AQG) of 15 ug/m3. Median indoor (n = 47) and outdoor (n = 41) 24 h mean CO concentrations were 0.7 ppm (range, 0-33.9 ppm) and 0.0 ppm (range, 0-1.0 ppm), respectively. Mean indoor CO concentrations exceeded the WHO 24 h AQG of 6.2 ppm in 9% of homes. Despite frequent use of cooking fuels considered to be clean such as LPG and ethanol, PM2.5 and CO levels in infant homes in urban SSA often exceeded the WHO AQGs. Expanded studies of children's air pollution exposures in urban SSA are needed to build awareness and inform policy.