GSH/pH-Responsive Chitosan–PLA Hybrid Nanosystems for Targeted Ledipasvir Delivery to HepG2 Cells: Controlled Release, Improved Selectivity, DNA Interaction, Electrochemical and Stopped-Flow Kinetics Analyses

Abstract

This study aimed to design dual-responsive chitosan-polylactic acid nanosystems (PLA@CS NPs) for controlled and targeted ledipasvir (LED) delivery to HepG2 liver cancer cells, thereby reducing the systemic toxicity and improving the therapeutic selectivity. Two formulations were developed utilizing ionotropic gelation and <i>w</i>/<i>o</i>/<i>w</i> emulsion techniques: LED@CS NPs with a size of 143 nm, a zeta potential of +43.5 mV, and a loading capacity of 44.1%, and LED-PLA@CS NPs measuring 394 nm, with a zeta potential of +33.3 mV and a loading capacity of 89.3%, with the latter demonstrating significant drug payload capacity. Since most drugs work through interaction with DNA, the in vitro affinity of DNA to LED and its encapsulated forms was assessed using stopped-flow and other approaches. They bind through multi-modal electrostatic and intercalative modes via two reversible processes: a fast complexation followed by a slow isomerization. The overall binding activation parameters for LED (cordination affinity, <i>K</i>_a = 128.4 M^-1, <i>K</i>_d = 7.8 × 10^-3 M, Δ<i>G</i> = -12.02 kJ mol^-1), LED@CS NPs (<i>K</i>_a = 2131 M^-1, <i>K</i>_d = 0.47 × 10^-3 M, Δ<i>G</i> = -18.98 kJ mol^-1) and LED-PLA@CS NPs (<i>K</i>_a = 22026 M^-1, <i>K</i>_d = 0.045 × 10^-3 M, Δ<i>G</i> = -24.79 kJ mol^-1) were obtained with a reactivity ratio of 1/16/170 (LED/LED@CS NPs/LED-PLA@CS NPs). This indicates that encapsulation enhanced the interaction between the DNA and the LED-loaded nanoparticle systems, without changing the mechanism, and formed thermodynamically stable complexes. The drug release kinetics were assessed under tumor-mimetic conditions (pH 5.5, 10 mM GSH) and physiological settings (pH 7.4, 2 μM GSH). The LED@CS NPs and LED-PLA@CS NPs exhibited drug release rates of 88.0% and 73%, respectively, under dual stimuli over 50 h, exceeding the release rates observed under physiological conditions, which were 58% and 54%, thereby indicating that the LED@CS NPs and LED-PLA@CS NPs systems specifically target malignant tissue. Release regulated by Fickian diffusion facilitates tumor-specific payload delivery. Although encapsulation did not enhance the immediate cytotoxicity compared to free LED, as demonstrated by an in vitro cytotoxicity in HepG2 cancer cell lines, it significantly enhanced the therapeutic index (2.1-fold for LED-PLA@CS NPs) by protecting non-cancerous cells. Additionally, the nanoparticles demonstrated broad-spectrum antibacterial effects, suggesting efficacy in the prevention of chemotherapy-related infections. The dual-responsive LED-PLA@CS NPs allowed controlled tumor-targeted LED delivery with better selectivity and lower off-target toxicity, making LED-PLA@CS NPs interesting candidates for repurposing HCV treatments into safer cancer nanomedicines. Furthermore, this thorough analysis offers useful reference information for comprehending the interaction between drugs and DNA.