Global synthesis of serotype diversity transmission dynamics and socioeconomic impacts of foot and mouth disease

Abstract

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral infection that continues to threaten global livestock health, with profound effects on animal productivity, rural livelihoods, food security, and international trade. Caused by the foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV), the infection comprises seven immunologically distinct serotypes: O, A, C (now considered extinct), Asia1, SAT1, SAT2, and SAT3, with no cross-protection among them. This antigenic diversity complicates vaccine formulation and outbreak control, particularly in endemic regions. Recent resurgences in countries such as South Africa highlight persistent gaps in surveillance and response capacity. This review examines the global synthesis of serotype diversity, transmission dynamics and socioeconomic impacts of foot and mouth disease and control, highlights critical research gaps, and proposes integrated mitigation approaches. Literature was sourced from major academic databases and supplemented with gray literature from relevant international organizations (WOAH, FAO, OIE-WAHIS). Transmission occurs mainly through direct contact with infected animals via saliva, nasal secretions, milk, semen, and vesicular fluid. Indirect and airborne routes also contribute significantly, with the virus surviving for extended periods in cool, moist environments. Contaminated animal products pose further risks to trade and biosecurity. The disease disrupts milk production, impairs mobility, and results in major economic losses. Effective control requires regionally tailored, multifaceted strategies encompassing enhanced biosecurity, next-generation vaccines, robust surveillance systems, and strengthened international collaboration. Integrated interventions against FMD can bolster animal health, food system resilience, and global trade security.