Exploring the environmental sources of Parkinson’s disease and recent nanotechnological interventions in animal Parkinson models

Abstract

Abstract Neurons are a crucial part of human physiology and play a key role in cognitive functioning; however, their dysfunction leads to neurodegenerative disorders. Parkinson’s disease (PD), one of the most prominent neurodegenerative disorders among the elderly population, has shown a fourfold increase over the past few decades after the industrial revolution, with suspected cases estimated to escalate over the coming years. It is characterized by mitochondrial dysfunction and the formation of Lewy bodies, which result from the aggregation of misfolded alpha-synuclein proteins deposited in dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra region of the midbrain, thereby hindering synaptic transmission. Neurotoxicity in dopamine (DA) neurons can be caused by a plethora of environmental agents, such as pesticides, heavy metals, and air pollution, with minimal contribution from hereditary and age-related factors. Despite the advancements in therapeutic interventions, PD continues to evade control measures, mainly due to the challenges posed by the blood–brain barrier (BBB). Conventional remedies such as exercise and pharmacological drugs such as levodopa are generally utilized to treat PD; however, a cure is still unavailable, thus urging us to explore new frontiers in PD research. Nanotechnology refers to the utilization of materials that are smaller than 200 nm, allowing them to easily cross the BBB. Due to their high surface area to volume ratio, nanomaterials exhibit unique properties that may be beneficial for treating PD. Plants contain a diverse array of phytochemicals that exhibit antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, including curcumin, 6-gingerol, and 6-shogaol. These compounds may serve as effective capping and stabilizing agents for phytofabricated nanoparticles. Drosophila melanogaster is a standard animal model for many studies due to its homology to humans, short generation time, and less cumbersome handling procedures. Because of its feasibility, a plethora of nanoformulation-based research has been conducted on this Parkinson-induced model. This review highlights the mechanism of neurotoxicity in PD by key environmental agents and the recent nanotechnological remedies in PD models.