Cryptosporidium infections in animals across Asia (2015–2025): a systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence, host range, geographic distribution, and molecular epidemiology

Abstract

Cryptosporidium spp. is a globally significant protozoan parasite with profound implications for animals, humans, and environmental health. Despite extensive research, its distribution, prevalence, and diversity across Asia remain fragmented. A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted on studies published between 2015 and 2025, incorporating 329 investigations from 29 Asian countries and analyzing 142,484 animal specimens. Pooled prevalence was calculated, and molecular epidemiological data were synthesized to characterize species distribution and subtype diversity. The overall pooled prevalence of Cryptosporidium among animals across Asia was 12%, with the highest prevalence reported in West Asia (19.8%). Infections were most frequent in livestock (13.1%), followed by wildlife (9.1%), reflecting the parasite's expanding host range. Molecular analysis revealed the presence of > 74 species and 71 subtypes, with C. parvum (n = 93), C. andersoni (n = 55), C. bovis (n = 43), and C. ryanae (n = 40) being the most frequently reported. C. parvum demonstrated the broadest host spectrum, detected in > 37 animal species, with subtype family IId (n = 49) prevalent in > 22 hosts, underscoring its epidemiological importance. Over the past decade, the prevalence of Cryptosporidium and its host diversity has increased significantly across Asia, accompanied by marked genetic heterogeneity. These findings provide critical insights into transmission dynamics and regional hotspots. This synthesis highlights the urgent need for coordinated surveillance and a "One Health Strategy" to mitigate the risks posed by this adaptable and widespread pathogen.