Critical care capacity in Africa: Post-pandemic ICU capacity, service readiness, and patient profiles across public and private hospitals in Ethiopia

Abstract

Background The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted critical care disparities in low-resource settings. Ethiopia implemented interventions to strengthen ICU capacity post-pandemic, yet gaps persist. This study assesses national ICU capacity following the COVID-19 pandemic, including private facilities, and identifies challenges to equitable critical care delivery. Method A cross-sectional nationwide assessment was conducted in public and private hospitals across Ethiopia. Data were collected through site visits and standardized questionnaires, assessing ICU capacity, staffing, equipment, protocols, and emergency preparedness. Patient-level data were also collected to assess common admission characteristics. Findings were compared with pre-COVID-19 baseline data to evaluate progress and identify gaps following the implementation of the interventions. Result A total of 159 facilities were included; 117 out of 159 (73.5%) were governmental, and 42 out of 159 (26·4%) were private facilities, assessing a total of 1028 beds. Post-COVID-19, public ICU facilities increased from 51 to 117, with beds increasing from 324 to 762. Private facilities contributed 266 beds (25.9% of national capacity). Improvements included 24/7 ICU-trained physician availability (52.1% vs. 29.0% pre-COVID) and disaster preparedness plans (21.4% vs. 6.0%). Persistent gaps included advanced hemodynamic monitoring (5/117 public, 3/42 private facilities) and organ support (9/117 public ICUs). Among 279 admissions (mean age, 39.1 years; 55.2% male), neurological (32.1%) and respiratory (25.8%) conditions predominated, with sepsis accounting for 29.4% of cases. Hypertension (25.1%) and diabetes (17.2%) were common comorbidities. Interpretation This study reveals significant growth in Ethiopia’s ICU infrastructure and workforce following the COVID-19 pandemic, with a threefold increase in ICU beds and improved distribution. However, gaps in advanced monitoring, organ support, and referral coordination reveal systemic issues in the readiness of critical care. The high incidence of sepsis among mostly young patients indicates the need for targeted investment in essential emergencies and critical care at all facility levels. Strengthening public-private integration, standardizing referral protocols, and scaling low-cost, high-impact interventions are key for enhancing equity and outcomes in resource-limited settings.