Can batteries be fully sustainable?

Abstract

Abstract Concerns over the environmental impact, supply chain vulnerability, and long-term availability of conventional lithium-ion battery (LIB) materials have intensified interest in sustainable alternatives. This review defines a fully sustainable battery as one in which all components are derived from renewable materials and produced through eco-friendly processes across their entire lifecycle, consistent with the ISO 14044:2006 LCA framework. The current state of partially sustainable batteries is evaluated against this definition through a critical review of recent advances in biomass-derived carbon anodes, organic cathode materials, biopolymer gel electrolytes, cellulose-based separators, bio-derived binders, and carbonaceous current collectors across lithium-ion, sodium-ion (SIB), and aqueous zinc-ion (ZIB) battery chemistries. Key findings include the cost and carbon footprint competitiveness of biomass-derived hard carbon anodes with synthetic graphite ($1.72 kg −1 vs $4.97 kg −1 ; 3.2 vs 25.1 kg CO₂-eq kg −1 ), the ionic conductivity competitiveness of biopolymer gel electrolytes with conventional liquid electrolytes (up to 11 mS cm −1 ), and the consistent superiority of cellulose-based separators over commercial polypropylene in thermal stability, electrolyte wettability, and biodegradability. This review makes an original contribution by identifying four challenges that prevent the integration of these components into a fully sustainable battery. The costs, sustainability, and lifecycle assessments of LIBs, SIBs, and ZIBs are comparatively evaluated using available LCA data, and prospects for sustainable battery recycling are assessed. Based on this analysis, five research directions are proposed, with SIBs and aqueous ZIBs identified as the most viable configurations for fully sustainable batteries given their compatibility with bio-derived materials and lower lifecycle environmental impact.