Assessment of The Bacterial Contamination of Second-Hand Clothing Sold in Eke Awka Market, Anambra State, Nigeria

Abstract

Second-hand clothing (okirika) is widely patronised in Nigeria, yet its direct skin contact and multi-user handling may facilitate microbial transmission and exposure to antimicrobial resistance. This study assessed the bacterial contamination of displayed second-hand items sold at Eke Awka Market, Awka (Anambra State, Nigeria), and characterised the distribution of bacterial species and their antimicrobial susceptibility profiles. Eight item categories (female adult pants, female adult bras, male adult trousers, male adult shirts, female blouses, ‘toddlers’ boys/ girls, and children’s toys) were sampled (n = 160; 20 per category) using standardized surface swabbing and processed by culture-based enumeration on selective/differential media, Gram staining and biochemical identification. Two (2) selected isolates : E.coli and Enterobacter spp were further evaluated using 16S rRNA gene sequencing, and clinically relevant isolates underwent Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion testing, interpreted according to CLSI standards. Bacterial loads(CFU/cm2) were detected in all categories, ranging from 1.06×10² to 1.80×10⁶ CFU/cm2 (overall mean log₁₀ CFU/cm2 = 3.41 ± 0.95), with the highest mean load on male adult shirts (3.72 ± 1.04)CFU/cm2 and the lowest on female adult bras (3.12 ± 0.73). Five organisms were recovered: Staphylococcus aureus (40.0%), Bacillus subtilis (25.6%), Enterobacter spp (24.4%), Escherichia coli (7.5%), and Clostridium spp. (2.5%). Bacterial species distribution differed significantly by item category (χ²(28) = 61.76, p = 0.000241; Cramér’s V = 0.31). Antimicrobial susceptibility results showed S. aureus retained high susceptibility to ciprofloxacin (100.0%) and ceporex (98.4%) but exhibited very high resistance to ampiclox (96.8%) and zinacef (92.1%), while Enterobacter cloacae demonstrated complete resistance to ofloxacin and amoxicillin-clavulanate (each 100.0%). The study concludes that second-hand items sold in Eke Awka Market carry clinically relevant bacteria with item-type–dependent patterns and concerning resistance profiles, underscoring the need for effective pre-use laundering/disinfection and improved hygiene controls across the resale chain.