review · Pathogens
Overreliance on synthetic antibiotics and chemicals in aquaculture leads to drug-resistant pathogens, destruction of beneficial microbes, and residual risks for human health. Essential oils derived from medicinal plants offer an alternative approach for sustainable disease management. These oils contain bioactive compounds such as terpenes, terpenoids, phenylpropenes, and isothiocyanates that act synergistically. Their hydrophobic nature allows them to penetrate bacterial and parasitic cells, triggering structural deformities and organelle dysfunction. Evidence shows these plant extracts combat parasites such as Ichthyophthirius multifiliis and Gyrodactylus, alongside major bacterial pathogens including Aeromonas salmonicida and Vibrio harveyi. Adding essential oils to aquatic diets also enhances growth, immune function, and disease resistance. Despite documented success in vitro and in vivo, precise mechanisms of action and biological pathways remain unconfirmed, highlighting critical targets for future investigation.
Conventional antibiotics used in fish farming promote drug resistance and leave chemical residues that can affect human health. Natural essential oils offer an environmentally friendly alternative to synthetic chemicals. By controlling harmful parasites and bacteria while strengthening fish immunity, plant-based treatments support more sustainable aquaculture practices and help safeguard food safety without relying on harmful treatments.
Essential oils could serve as phytotherapeutic feed additives and treatments for commercial aquaculture operators facing bacterial and parasitic infections. While in vitro and in vivo studies confirm their antimicrobial efficacy, the technology remains at an early to intermediate research stage. Broader commercial adoption will require establishing clear biological pathways and resolving defined operational mechanisms before standardised products can be fully developed and deployed.
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Using synthetic antibiotics/chemicals for infectious bacterial pathogens and parasitic disease control causes beneficial microbial killing, produces multi-drug resistant pathogens, and residual antibiotic impacts in humans are the major threats to aquaculture sustainability. Applications of herbal products to combat microbial and parasitic diseases are considered as alternative approaches for sustainable aquaculture. Essential oils (EOs) are the secondary metabolites of medicinal plants that possess bioactive compounds like terpens, terpenoids, phenylpropenes, and isothiocyanates with synergistic relationship among these compounds. The hydrophobic compounds of EOs can penetrate the bacterial and parasitic cells and cause cell deformities and organelles dysfunctions. Dietary supplementation of EOs also modulate growth, immunity, and infectious disease resistance in aquatic organisms. Published research reports also demonstrated EOs effectiveness against <i>Ichthyophthirius multifiliis</i>, <i>Gyrodactylus</i> sp., <i>Euclinostomum heterostomum</i>, and other parasites both in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, different infectious fish pathogenic bacteria like <i>Aeromonas salmonicida</i>, <i>Vibrio harveyi</i>, and <i>Streptococcus agalactiae</i> destruction was confirmed by plant originated EOs. However, no research was conducted to confirm the mechanism of action or pathway identification of EOs to combat aquatic parasites and disease-causing microbes. This review aims to explore the effectiveness of EOs against fish parasites and pathogenic bacteria as an environment-friendly phytotherapeutic in the aquaculture industry. Moreover, research gaps and future approaches to use EOs for sustainable aquaculture practice are also postulated.
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DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10020185
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