A Review of the Chemistry, Waste Utilization, Mix Design and Performance Evaluation of Geopolymer Concrete

Abstract

Abstract Geopolymer concrete (GPC) has emerged as a sustainable alternative to conventional Portland cement concrete, which offers notable environmental, technical and economic benefits. At the core of GPC production is industrial symbiosis, where wastes from energy, agriculture and glass manufacturing sectors are repurposed as precursors and alkaline activators. This process exemplifies circular economy principles by transforming waste streams into valuable construction materials to reduce landfill pressure, conserve raw resources and reduce carbon emissions in line with the Sustainable Development Goals. However, GPC’s broader adoption in structural applications is hindered by several challenges, which include variability in waste composition, inconsistent performance and the lack of standardization. This review advances the discourse on GPC by situating its development within an industrial symbiosis framework, focusing on waste-based precursors and alkaline activators, with the latter a critical yet underexplored component in closing material loops. It further evaluates the interplay between precursor and activator variability across GPC chemistry, mix design, structural performance and durability to address practical challenges related to waste stream inconsistencies, toxicity concerns and regional disparities in material availability. Key findings emphasize the urgent need for standardized mix design guidelines tailored to waste variability, scalable production methods and comprehensive life cycle assessments of alternative activators to facilitate GPC’s transition from laboratory research to widespread adoption within a circular and symbiotic construction ecosystem.