article · ESMO Open
Breast cancer (BC) is a heterogeneous malignancy in which immune evasion remains a major barrier to effective therapeutic responses. Although immune checkpoint inhibitors targeting PD-1/PD-L1 and CTLA-4 have shown clinical benefit in selected BC patients, their efficacy is limited by heterogeneous responses, immune-related adverse events, and resistance. These limitations underscore the need to identify novel immune checkpoints and to elucidate the molecular mechanisms governing their regulation.
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DOI: 10.1016/j.esmoop.2026.106210
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